History of Islam-Mairaj/Travelling of MUHAMMAD (SAW) to meet ALLAH (SH)

( In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful ) 

             History of Islam-Mairaj/Travelling of                 MUHAMMAD (SAW) to meet ALLAH (SH) 

( From Jerusalem to above 7th Sky ) 

26. Radjab 1437 AH 

( Quranic Reference 1 ) 

Holy is He Who carried His bondman by night from the sacred Mosque to the Aqsa Mosque (Aqsa) around which We have put blessings that We might show him Our grand signs. No doubt, He is the Hearing, the Seeing. 17:1

( Quranic reference 2 )

The Strong; then the Spectacle inclined. 

And he was on the horizon of the highest heaven.

Then the Spectacle became closer, and (he) came down fully.

So the distance between the Spectacle and the beloved was only two arms’ length, or even less. (The Heavenly Journey of Prophet Mohammed – peace and blessings be upon him – was with body and soul.)

So Allah divinely revealed to His bondman, whatever He divinely revealed.

The heart did not deny, what it saw. (The Holy Prophet was bestowed with seeing Allah – see also preceding verses 8,9, 10 .)

What! So do you dispute with him regarding what he saw?

And indeed he did see the Spectacle again.

Near the lote-tree of the last boundary.

Close to which is the Everlasting Paradise.

When the lote-tree was being enveloped, by whatever around it.

The sight did not shift, nor did it cross the limits.

Indeed he saw the supreme signs of his Lord. 53:6-18

In 621 AD, one year before the migration to Medina, this miracle was happened. All 

authentic books of Hadith prove this miracle of Allah (SH) for HIS beloved Prophet 

Muhammad (PBUH). All details of this journey from earth to above the 7th sky are available 

in Hadith books. Muhammad (PBUH) met with the Almighty Allah, got the gift of 5 prayers a 

day for His Ummah. He also requested before Allah (SH) for the forgiveness of His Ummah 

from sins and Allah (SH) accepted His loving request.

History of World War I

HISTORY OF WORLD WAR 

Background and causes :

Causes: Franco-Prussian war and imperialism

The great common cause of World War I was the big tensions between different European countries. Nationalism (love for one's own country and people) had emerged in the nineteenth century and now played an important role in everyday life. By sharing habits, language, history and people of the same nation had a bond with each other and with their homeland. As a child, you learned to be proud of the people and nurture a dislike towards other nations.

Around 1900, there was enmity between France and Germany, as a result of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. This just-year war was won by Germany. Before the seventies of the nineteenth century, the Germans did not live all in the same country, but they were spread over several states. The German princes gathered during the Franco-Prussian war and called the German unit. This made Germany the most powerful state in Europe. The French province of Alsace-Lotharingian ceded to the Germans. Thus, the French were once an important source of raw materials (coal and ore) lost. They wanted revenge.

Not only Germany had problems with France, but also with Russia and England (Great Britain). When Germany went hunting colonies, the English were afraid that their colonies by Germany would be snapped up. This was the time of imperialism (the colonies and conquests worldwide). The British Empire (Empire) was very large: it covered a sixth of the earth. France and smaller European countries had colonies in Africa and Asia. The colonies raw materials and workers were delivered to European factories. Moreover, a country had much respect as it had many colonies.

In the nineteenth century, the beam (Southeastern Europe) and the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) by rebellious nationalist nations proclaimed independent states. The inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted to join Serbia, but these lands were occupied by Austria-Hungary. Said they were not nationalistic Serbs fun.


Alliances: Friends and Foes

In 1879 formed an alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. That came in 1882 when Italy still: this became the Triple Alliance. The three countries were central in the middle of Europe, so the united Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary were called the Central Powers. They promised each other military assistance at the outbreak of war.

A great enemy of Austria-Hungary was Russia. Serbia and other countries were supported in South East Europe through Russia: the Russians were trying in this way to reach the Mediterranean. In the northern oceans, the Russian ships were in fact often stuck on the ice. The government of Austria-Hungary feared that the nationalist Serbs would do their country fall apart and no influence of the Russians also wanted to Toolbars. Germany was an ally of Austria-Hungary and thus became angry at Russia.

Germany was better than France in the second half of the nineteenth century. The German population had grown stronger than the French, which the Germans had a larger and more powerful army. Economically it was with Germany better than in many other countries: the industry was strong, modern weapons. The industrialization of Germany and made her stronger armies.

Russia and France joined in 1894 an allied agreement to help each other during the war. In 1904, England also joined to it. France, Russia and England were called grille Erden.

In this way, Europe became divided into the camp of the Central Powers (Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary) and the camp of the grille Erden: Russia, France, and England. It gave a feeling of security to form an alliance, but it also led to a world war: even had to fight alongside the allies when it came out.

In 1900, it could not be long before there would be a war. People harbored the great admiration for the army: militarism. There are plenty of weapons were produced and from warnings were unheeded.


The beginning of the war: the straw that broke the camel

Through the alliance of France with Russia was Germany during the war, both in the east (against Russia) fight as in the west (against France). This was difficult because the German army had to be split while France and Germany had only one front. By a German general attack, the plan was designed that would ensure that Germany won the two front war before. According to him, the French would be defeated in six weeks, then Russia's turn.

On June 28, 1914, the Austrian heir to the throne Franz Ferdinand visited the capital of Bosnia. Along with Hercegovina had the Austrians Bosnia snapped up. Franz Ferdinand and his wife were shot dead during a ricochet Sarajevo by Serb. This made the government of Austria-Hungary furious and wanted to punish Serbia. Simultaneously, the murder came in handy, because it was a good reason to attack Serbia. The German government agrees: Emperor Wilhelm II wanted as quickly as possible to deal with Serbia. Russia to help Serbia lap and mobilized its army. Then Germany declared war on Russia and France.

Across Europe, millions of conscripts were called and on August 4, 1914, the First World War officially began when Germany attacked.

Most of the soldiers at home and were very enthusiastic. Everyone assumed that would quickly overcome their own troops. Belgium took over the German army in France. Because of this attack on Belgium Britain declared war on Germany. England wanted absolutely no German domination in the North Sea. The English army started small and professionally, but tens of thousands of Britons took quickly volunteered.

The German advance was going well in the first few weeks, but the French were not defeated. so they had still to fight on two fronts: in the east against Russia and the west against France.


The course of the war :

How was the war waged?

The plan of the Germans for not having to fight on two fronts failed. With the support of the British kept the French army position in Belgium and northern France. Germany was therefore forced to fight both in the West and in the East. The western front ran from the Belgian coast to the Swiss border. Millions and millions of soldiers were facing each other in trenches: deep trenches which the soldiers are more or less protected against the fire of the guns and cannons. Barbed wire, bunkers, and tunnels reinforced the trenches, but you were not quite safe there. The enemy attempted to destroy the trenches with heavy artillery and the generals gave repeatedly ordered to massive attacks. A bayonet (insert weapon) soldiers had to help the gun to the enemy trenches. Mostly killed there just soldiers and was not conquered new territory. Both the Central Powers and the grille Erden shots for no meter.

In February 1915, the eastern fight was what agile. The Russian army was poorly equipped and lack of almost all the necessities: guns, bullets, guns, grenades, clothing, food, medical aid and army captains. But there were plenty of men. In one year the Russian army lost four million men. The huge losses led to criticism of the Russian government. The Tsar (Russian Emperor) came under pressure and had to retire by many people.

Not only was fought on the Eastern Front and the Western Front. Also on the beams and the border of Italy and Austria-Hungary was waged battle, and even in the African colonies. But Italy joined the Central Powers to grille Erden in 1914.

Thanks to the industrial and technical progress in the nineteenth century, there were very strong during the First World War and killing weapons. There were rifles and guns that could shoot exactly and large, heavy shells. The machine gun could shoot down thousands of enemies in proper formation. The gun was very popular to destroy trenches and distribute grenades rains. Poison gas, flamethrowers, and planes were new inventions and true weapon horrors. Both planes were designed for exploration of the front as dogfights and bombing. The English were in 1916 also once the tank, but all these weapons were of no avail: the enemy lines could not be broken and they continued to fight in the trenches.


Consequences for soldiers and civilians

All men between eighteen and fifty years were summoned to enlist in the army. The grille Erden had many soldiers from colonies. Moroccans, Algerians, and Sanger Glasses served the French, Canadians, Australians, South Africans, Indians and Chinese were on the side of the British. Approximately sixty-eight million soldiers were mobilized in total and ten million were killed: three times as many soldiers were injured. All countries took drastic measures to arm the army and care. Before the war, there were economic freedom entrepreneurs determined themselves what they produced and sold and the level of wages and product prices was free. This changed in the period between 1914 and 1918. Manufacturers were required to produce weapons. This economic unfreedom turned the First World War a total war: the entire population, the economy, and society as a whole were used there. Women had to take over the work of soldiers and exchange their job as a nurse, housekeeper or salesperson for the office or factory train driver. This was good for the emancipation of women because women were doing the same work as men and therefore were more equal.

During the war, nationalism was again raked up and exploited. The population had to stand behind the war, one hundred percent, so the patriotism was reinforced by propaganda. Newspapers, movies, and such methods were used to blame in the shoes of the enemy countries. The enemies were blackened and depicted: the mass media were full of large numbers of casualties on the enemy. About their own losses were not positive or spoken. There was censorship, the government oversaw the press and not everything should be published.


The end of the First World War

Was pretty soon after the outbreak of the war formed a blockade to the German coast by the British fleet. British warships made a trade barrier: Sea: no goods could be transported to Germany. import and export to and from Germany were impossible. This caused major commodity and food shortages. In the first two years it was not too bad, but in 1917, the damage was increasing. There were too few bullets and grenades for the army and there was famine among the population. Meanwhile, graille Erden could, of course, argue indeed large shiploads of goods from other continents. The German defeat was the result of this blockage.

In 1917 changed the structure of the war. The United States joined in while Russia withdrew. The German navy was not strong enough to challenge the English ships, only the submarine managed to get through the blockade. Ships of impartial countries graille Erden were hijacked by Germany. The German emperor brought his submarine several US ships sunk. This led in April 1917 that America declared war against Germany and came to stand on the side of France and England.

Russia had to do in 1917 with two revolutions. The Russian Tsar was forced to resign in February and in October the Communists seized power under the leadership of Lenin. They decided to stop the fight against the Central Powers. Russia withdrew from the war around the end of 1917. However, in March 1918, Russia signed an official peace with Germany, which Russia lost large areas of Germany. The grille Erden felt betrayed and was furious Lenin was in their eyes, nothing more and nothing less than a traitor to France and England was abandoned.

1917, despite the strong new alliance with the United States, a difficult year for the grille Erden. There was no incentive to fight anymore and the soldiers were war-weary. In the French army broke strikes. The US troops were hundreds of thousands of well-armed soldiers, and that was decisive. In 1918, it was a lost cause for Germany. The emperor abdicated and fled to the Netherlands, a truce was officially closed on November 11, 1918.

The Netherlands and Belgium in World War I

Neutral or not, the war in the Netherlands and Belgium

Initially, the Germans wanted by Belgium and march through the Netherlands, but eventually remained in Belgium. Netherlands was left by both grille Erden as the Central Powers alone and therefore remained neutral, impartial and without taking sides.

However, this did not apply to Belgium. The Germans invaded France through Belgium and thereby conquered most of the Belgium. From the small piece of coast that was from Belgium, large parts of the country were put under water by the Belgian army. This meant four years prior, with the help of the English and French.

The Netherlands was neutral did not mean that we did not have any burden of the war. The Netherlands had the task of refugees to catch on both fronts, leading to social and economic problems. Netherlands mobilized the army more than two hundred thousand men had to protect the Netherlands against a possible attack. During the war, more and more mobilized soldiers: in 1918 there were half a million soldiers. All of which cost money.

In The Hague, the government did everything possible to keep the Netherlands neutral and that also show. That was not so easy: some generals were clear pro-German. But they had to listen to the parliament and the government, which at all costs wanted to preserve neutrality. All political parties supported the government and thereby put their differences aside mutual Netherlands in the period from 1914 to 1918 does not suffer had major damage and loss of innocent lives.


The economic impact

Belgium was occupied by the Germans, who confiscated all industry, commerce, and agriculture. They robbed the country almost empty, destroyed towns and killed innocent Belgians. Despite the fact that the Netherlands was occupied by enemies who manipulated the economy, were here too ill effects. Trade with Germany or the grille Erden was dangerous and was seen as supporting the enemy by the other front. Netherlands had little resources they had to be transported by sea, and by the British blockade was a problem. England wished Netherlands competed with them and would not deal with Germany. To ensure that, the Dutch merchant was monitored very strictly. Dutch ships were often seized by the British Navy. Shipping in the North Sea was dangerous. By the English mines were dumped at sea that could blow up whole ships. The German submarines made it pretty difficult the Dutch ships. Dozens of lost ships and the Netherlands could only protest.

The war had the economic decline as a result. Especially in the last two years of the war it was very noticeable: companies went bankrupt and had to close: people were unemployed. They arrived in sad circumstances, and the poor had suffered from the rising cost of living. The government took some steps to the food still somewhat to lead in the right direction. Farmers had to grow food crops, which the government took for fixed amounts. The distribution system was a measure. Vouchers (coupons and vouchers) for bread, meat, soap, fuel and similar necessities ensured that could survive the poor. There were also war profit makers who profited from the misery of the poor. In 1917 and 1918, broke through famine and poverty in riots.


The reception of Belgian refugees in the Netherlands

When the Germans were approaching, fled to an estimated one million Belgians to the safe and neutral Netherlands. They also went to England and France, because, after all, fought against the Germans and would help them. In the Netherlands, most of the Belgian refugees arrived in Zeeland, Limburg and North Brabant. In the beginning, they were captured by ordinary citizens and let them live in their own homes. Money was collected, but the refugees kept coming. There was hardly any food and housing, so the government had to intervene. The emergency had to be led in the right direction, and the refugees were Belgians as possible throughout the Netherlands. All provinces had to take care of them together, through the established refugee camps.

Late 1914, early 1915 Belgium safe for most people. There was only fought in the southwest of Belgium: the rest of the country "normal" occupied by the Germans. Hundred thousand Belgians in the Netherlands remained until the war was really over. These were part of people whose house was in the front area. Or were Belgian soldiers who did not want to fight the Germans. These soldiers stayed back in other types of camps and could only return home in 1918.


The Soviet Union

Communists to power

Russia was not exactly good for the country in 1914 when at war hit with Austria-Hungary and Germany. Most people were tenant farmers and had to work for landowners in the country. Workers in the few industry had to work very hard for very little money and lived in appalling conditions. The star wanted hegemony over the country. But Russia there was obviously much too large, and in addition, the state of the army was pretty bad. They had little training and had a lousy equipment: shooting had to be done with broom steal. not even against modern, strong army of Germany in Russia could. In early 1917 the misery peaked. There were severe food shortages because almost all the farmers were in the army. Especially among the townspeople was hungry.

In March (according to the Russian calendar of February) in 1917 was given the Russian capital St. Petersburg riots. The army did not shoot at the people and the Tsar joined forced off. This was the first stage of the Russian Revolution.

It was a spontaneous uprising, so there is no alternative arrangements were made. There was a provisional government that had to create a new constitution and a rescue of the country. This government was put under pressure from Britain and France and therefore decided to continue to fight against Germany.

This error did the Bolsheviks, the Russian Communists, waited. Their leader Lenin had earlier fled abroad but returned. He immediately began to prepare for a coup. According to his promise, he would distribute among the peasants the land of the landlords and stop the war against Germany. The Bolsheviks took advantage of the summer of the chaotic situation when Russia had suffered a number of defeats against Germany. On 24 November (actually October), 1917, the Bolsheviks occupied some important buildings in St. Petersburg. The provisional government was overthrown and the Communists had seized power. Provisional they would that do not emit too.


Communists to power: the goals of the Bolsheviks

The Bolsheviks were of the German philosopher Karl Marx. He thought that the workers could only get better with a revolution. According to Marx, it was capitalism (the personal property and personal wealth and prosperity) due that most people are getting poorer, and only a few people were getting richer. A society must come up with a fair distribution of wealth, led by workers. This was communism. A communist society there is no private property, everything is owned by the state. The Communist Party must ensure certainty and equal treatment so, therefore, the life of the country.

The Bolsheviks were very enthusiastic about communism and immediately began their export. Lenin was the leader of the Communist government and therefore banned all other political parties. Russia was the Soviet Union or USSR. Soviet in Russian means a council (government) soldiers and workers. Russia withdrew from the war with Germany by the peace treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The money economy was abolished and all private property - land, houses, cattle, machinery - became the property of the state. Not everyone was happy with this, and civil war broke out between the Reds and the Whites, the Bolsheviks (red) and the opponents of Communism (white). The Whites were supported by Western Europe and the US but still could not defeat the Bolsheviks.

Lenin established a secret police to eliminate the opposition. This was the beginning of a terror in the Soviet Union that would make millions of victims. It was not a workers' paradise, but an extreme left (very progressive) dictatorship. The population had no say, everything was defined and organized by the Communist Party.

Lenin died in 1924 after a long illness, he was fifty-three years. He was succeeded by Stalin, which was worse than Lenin. Stalin was a doer and not a thinker: he literally went over seem to uphold the rule of communism.


The consequences of Stalin's leadership

Stalin began to work directly on the construction of communism in the Soviet Union. Capitalism had to disappear and therefore Russia should become a modern industrial country. This is what he wanted to achieve by working from 1938 with a planned economy. For a period of five years given the government's economic targets to be achieved. The structure of the industrial society was given high priority, and workers were enormous seated behind their pants just to work as hard and as fast as possible. After the first five-year plan, which failed miserably, the Soviet Union was able to catch her behind Western Europe and the United States.

The farmers had to contribute to the development of the industry. The farm was collective (public, state-owned) is to improve the harvest. Own agricultural businesses and farms were not allowed. The farmers joined forced to accede to collective farms or communist farms. The farmers were forced to cooperate by Stalin. Farmers who nevertheless were independent were arrested and sent low survival to prison camps in Siberia.

The massacres had great tragedies as a result. The decreased revenues from the food there was great famine and there were millions of deaths. Not only the farmers suffered from terror. The secret police (KGB) daily urged hundreds of opponents of communism. Even Communist party members were not safe. The prisoners confessed anything under torture, but all in government-organized show trials.

In the period between 1934 and 1938 thirty-five officers of the Bolsheviks were murdered. Altogether died between four and eight million people. But Stalin persevered with the construction of a totalitarian state. There was strict censorship criticism of his policy impossible. All media were used to propagate communism. Large parameters were held for Lenin and Stalin, to keep the population on their side and indoctrinate (inject, as it were) their ideas to the people.

The terror was less after 1938. Stalin noticed that Hitler was arriving from abroad. First, there was a brief collaboration between Hitler and Stalin to occupy Poland in part. In 1941, the Soviet Union was attacked by Germany.


Historical Portraits

Ilijtsj Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) founder and first leader of the Soviet Union. He led the confiscation of all private property and established a secret police for the opponents of communism.

Joseph Stalin (1870-1953) He followed Lenin and became a brutal dictator in the Soviet Union. He was the creator of the planned economy, collectivization of agriculture, purges and terror. As a result of his rule millions of people died.


Timeline

1882: Italy joins Germany and Austria-Hungary.

1907: Russia joins the Anglo-French Treaty.

1914: World War I begins.

1917: The United States declare war on Germany.

1917 Russian Revolution: Russia closes armistice with Germany, Phase 1 and 2

1918: November: Armistice between Germany and grille Erden, ending World War I.

History of India.

HISTORY OF INDIA

The Aryan kingdoms were between 327 and 324 BC attacked by Alexander the Great. However, he suddenly pulled back, where Chandragupta, the founder of the Maurya dynasty, benefited. With a huge army he conquered northern India and parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan; only southern India managed to resist him. Not until 274 BC. managed Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, to conquer the south. This battle went against the Kalinga and cost tens of thousands of civilians and soldiers living. Shocked by this massacre Ashoka converted to Buddhism and also led to the spread of this religion to the neighboring countries.

After his death the great cultural empire of Ashoka in decline. In 185 BC. the last ruler of the Maurya dynasty was slain and the empire disintegrated into warring fiefdoms together.

India's second important kingdom was Kushanas, which had its heyday in the 1st century BC. to the 3rd century AD. It included Central Asia and Northern India and extended to Varanasi and Vaishali in Bhopal. The capitals were Peshawar (now in Pakistan) and Mathura. The greatest leader was the Buddhist convert Kanishka.

Gupta's Pallava and Chola Dynasty: The Classical Period

In the period, 320-544 North India became a political unity and flourished the culture. During this so-called Gupta-period lived Hinduism at the expense of Buddhism. The Gupta empire collapsed after 470 by raids of Huns from Persia and Turkey and fell apart into different realms. To the south was the struggle between different Dravidian dynasties. The Pallawa's dominated large parts of the south from the capital Kanchipuram, and in the 7th century and 8th century, the empire of the Pallawa at its peak.

Around 850, the empire was conquered by the Chola Dynasty, of which Raja I in 985 to the throne. Under his reign, and that of Kulottunga I, the area of the Chola Dynasty expanded to the north of Ceylon, Malaysia and parts of Sumatra. From 1150 came the decline in and around 1250 became the Chola Empire annexed by the Pandya's.

Islamists attack northern India :

In 712 A.D, Muhammad Bin Qasim an Arabic young Muslim General of 17 years of Ummayad Caliphate entered in Sindh to save the newly converted Muslims who were prisoned by Raja Dahir when they were leaving to perform their Haj. He defeated the Raja Dahir and conquered Sindh up to Multan. That was the advent of Islam at this idols worshipping land.

The north was from the beginning of the 11th century attacked by Muslims in Afghanistan and in 1192 were the many kingdoms in Muslim hands of Sultan Mehmood Ghaznavi and Sultan Shahab ud Din Muhammad Ghauri cases.

After his death, he was succeeded by the General and former slave Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the Sultan of Delhi. This slave dynasty would govern until 1526 the sultanate of Delhi, that most of North India covered. Among the Tughluq dynasty continued the decline of the Sultanate of Delhi, and the area was conquered in 1398 by the ruthless conqueror Timur the Lame (Timur-Lenk), the 'scourge of God'.

In the south, Islam did not really ground under our feet and the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar had an extraordinary flowering period of 1350-1550.

The empire of the Moghuls :

The Delhi sultanate was conquered in 1526 by Babur derived from Turkestan. In the battle of Panipat was the last sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, records, and also the resisting warrior people of the Rajpoeten was defeated by Babur. At that time Babur was the founder and first emperor of the Mughal Empire. This empire became increasingly powerful in 1707, India brought more political unity, and made for a great revival of various art forms.

Babur's son Hoemayoen was still defeated in 1540 by the Afghan ruler Shah Sjer, but after his death in 1554 Hoemayoen returned. Hoemayoen was succeeded by his 13-year-old son Akbar, who did amazingly well, and in addition a good soldier was also a lover of art. Early 17th century he controlled the whole of northern India, headed by his regent Bairam Khan. His empire was governed by rulers and local princes, and they prostrated themselves, retaining their rights and sometimes even got higher positions. So Akbar ensured unity in his empire and even religious differences were tolerated. He even founded a new religion: Divine Faith, more or less a blend of all the essential elements of Hinduism, Islam and Christianity.

Akbar was succeeded by his son Jehangir that would govern until 1627. Jehangir was in that year succeeded by Shah Jahan, which further expanded the empire and encouraged trade and economy. And he made in honor of his deceased wife, the beautiful Taj Mahal.

In 1658, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurengzeb. Under him, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, because even were conquered large parts of southern India. However, religious freedom was under Aurengzeb a halt and there followed a period of Islamization to persecute infidels and demolishing Hindu temples. Rajpoeten and Mara Then, both Hindu nations resist violently, and with an outbreak of a succession struggle and the growing influence of Europe, the Mogul empire collapsed slowly into each other.

European influences are expanding :

The sea route to India via the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa meanwhile was found in 1498 by the explorer Vasco da Gama. In the same year, he landed on the southwest coast of India in Calicut, Kerala. After Goa was conquered in 1510, the Portuguese until the 17th century, managed to maintain a monopoly of trade in this region.

The other major maritime nations dropped their eyes on India. The Dutch founded trading posts in South India and the French had from 1672 different trading colonies in Pondicherry. The most power and influence was the English East India Company, with trading posts in Surat (1612), Chennai (1640), Mumbai (1688) and Calcutta (1690). Both the French and English companies of all kept themselves busy with trade and did not interfere with internal affairs.

The problems between the great powers France and England in Europe around 1750 changed the situation in India thoroughly. Self-interest was now in front and the struggle between France and Britain reached in the Battle of the climax of Plassey in Bengal (1757). The British defeated a huge army of Bengal which was supported by the French.

British supremacy :

One hundred years later, was about 60% of Indian territory under direct British control. The rest of the country was ruled by local princes and maharajas which real or were forced to acknowledge the sovereignty of the British.

In 1857 the Sepoy rebellion broke out, the 'Mutiny', the first major uprising against the British rulers. The Sepoys, soldiers from the Indian regiments of the British colonial army, were dissatisfied with British rule and were supported by deposed Hindu princes and members of the mogoldynastie. The uprising was very harshly beaten down and the government in Britain responded by entrust the administration in 1858 of a governor-general, who was given the title of viceroy 'Raj'. When Queen Victoria was Empress of India and the East India Company was completely finished. In the same year the last mogolkoning was deposed, Bahadur Shah II, and thus came to a definitive end to the Mughal Empire.

India now was part of the British Empire, with a viceroy as the main driver; the Indians were subjects of Queen Victoria. From 1840 to 1914, India was the main trading partner of the British and the country got a fairly large degree of autonomy. In 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India.

The Indian elite developed a political consciousness in the second half of the 19th century and began to rebel against the British colonial rulers. They also demanded more influence in government. All this was followed by the establishment of the Indian National Congress, which insisted on greater influence of population on the governance of the country, for both Hindus and Muslims in 1885. Soon there was a radical movement in Congress who do not recoiled from violence. In 1906, Muslims broke away and founded the All India Muslim League of Muslim League. The drifting apart of the Hindus and the Muslims seemed to be a good development for the British colonial policy.

By supporting the British during World War I hoped to be the Indians after the war an independent Commonwealth country. This endeavor was cruelly suppressed on April 13, 1919, when killed during a demonstration in Amritsar (Punjab) British unprovoked 379 protesters and further there were more than 1,200 wounded.

Gandhi and Nehru :

By this unfortunate action of the British fanned nationalism further, led by the charismatic Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi. After studying law in England and staying in South Africa, he returned to India in 1915.

He quickly gained a leading position in the independence movement began in 1920 with a major campaign for 'svaraj or self-government. The campaign was characterized by violent actions, which were therefore very difficult to combat by the British. They decided to arrest Gandhi and he was sentenced to six years in prison, but because of his poor health, he was already released back in 1924.

In 1930 Gandhi was by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, the president of the Congress, was appointed as leader of a new campaign against the salt monopoly of the government. In 1931, Gandhi took on behalf of the Congress participated in a round table conference in London on the future of his country. This conference produced the "Government of India Act on nothing more than a mere palliative.

In World War II, wanted a majority of Congress to support the British in exchange for independence after the war. The British refused to go into this after the Congress campaign 'Quit India' began, which, however, only resulted in the arrest of the leader of this action.

Independent India, Pakistan secede :

After the war, the British nevertheless concludes that colonial status to India was no longer tenable. However, the transfer of sovereignty did not go as smoothly as the antagonism between Hindus and Muslims. The Congress was dominated at that time by Hindus who were for an independent state for all Indians. The Muslim League led by Jinnah wanted a separate Muslim state, Pakistan. In 1946 the country was divided into two states, India and Pakistan. The handover took place on August 15, 1947 (Indian Independence Act), and from then on were Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan two independent states. They were both well at the Commonwealth and Lord Mountbatten acted as Governor-General on behalf of Great Britain on. Prime Minister of India was Congress leader Nehru. Independence was the signal for large population movements. Pakistan was overrun by Muslim refugees from India and Hindus from Pakistan. Problems occurred mainly in the Indian state of Punjab and the Pakistani Bengal. Eventually, millions of refugees clashed with each other and mutually counted about killing half a million.

At that time there were in India about 500 principalities that joined India or Pakistan and kept in a high degree of independence. One problem was caused by uncertainty of the Hindu king of predominantly Muslim Kashmir. Pakistan hold military and by the Indian response, there was an India-Pakistan war in 1948. The United Nations intervened and arranged a truce, but the Kashmir issue would be until today govern the relationship between India and Pakistan. On January 10, 1948 there was a shock the world when Gandhi was assassinated. On June 21, 1948 Mountbatten resigned. On January 26, 1950 was proclaimed the republic in New Delhi and adopted the constitution.


In the fifties, Nehru's India was a mediator in the Korean conflict and the first Vietnam War (Geneva Conference, 1954) play. Nehru refused a neutral third block 'form, but in the United Nations, India had a major say between 1950 and 1960.

The History of Germany

THE HISTORY OF GERMANY

The Teutons: 

A little known area was populated by Germanic tribes. These hunters, farmers and warriors managed to stop the Romans in their advance, defeat a large Roman army during the battle in the Teutoburg Forest (.. 9 AD). They were also led by Arminius Hermann the Cherusker. The Romans withdrew in time then returned from the area between the rivers Elbe and the Rhine. They thus incidentally still occupy part of Germania. Cities such as for example Cologne (Latin: Colonia) owe their name to the Romans. To counter attacks by Germanic tribes defend the Romans built a border reinforcement. The Roman empire lost in the centuries to power and meaning. During the migrations of the Germanic tribes exchanged their habitats throughout Europe.

Charlemagne and the kingdom of the Frank :

From 400 n. Chr. one tribe got more power: the Franks. The most famous monarch, Charlemagne lived around 800. He was able to spend a large part of Europe under his control: France, Italy and Germany west of the Elbe.

After the death of the son of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious, had his three sons each a part of the empire. That happened in the Treaty of Verdun (843 n. Chr.) Louis the German received the eastern part of the empire, from which would emerge later the German Empire. From the western part would come later France.

In the year 911 the first German king, Kondrad I, chosen by the nobility. It was true that there was indeed elected, but also had to be relatives of the former king. From the 13th century chose the principal vassals, the Electors, the king.

The first kings had to share their power with powerful tribal dukes.

Adjust the royal family of the Ottonians succeeded in somewhat reducing the power of stem dukes. Otto I. conquered large parts of Italy and was crowned by the pope as emperor in 962 in Rome. This coronation has since been more or less an acquired right.

Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (911-1806) :

The empire was originally named "Roman Empire", since the 13th century "Holy Roman Empire" and vanafde 15th century, "Holy Roman Empire of the German nation." The name can be clearly seen that their regarded themselves as successors to the Roman emperors. Only from the 15th century are going to use the word of Germany. The emperors considered themselves often superior to the papacy, which led to major conflicts with the church. For example, over who should appoint new bishops. The emperors had an interest in their property by having chosen bishops governments; who could not wijgeren after all. The powerful competitors of the emperor, the dukes and earls, had thus reviewing. But still managed to reduce the princes to the power of the emperor over again, the empire was fragmented into many small areas. The cities were becoming increasingly important. The power of the emperor but only took off; actually suggested that does not so much more from 1350. From 1254 to 1273, during the "Interregnum" was even disagreement not generally recognized emperor. From about 1400 the empire was almost continuously in the hands of the family of the Habsburgs. They tried by "Hausmachtpolitik" (as much as possible to increase their area), to increase their power and influence.

Reformation :

In 1517 Martin Luther protested against abuses in the church, such as trade with indulgences and the burning of heretics. By payment you could be sent, as it were surrenders. The "drain" it was a proof of this. Luther with his criticism hit the nail on the head. In the troubled period that followed was the exception to a schism in the church (Catholic and Protestant) also to an uprising of rich knights (1522/23) and farmers (the "Bauer Krieg", 1525). The rebellions were nipped in the bud. Regional sovereigns benefited from the Religious Peace of Augsburg (the "Augsburger Religion Frieden", 1555). Not the emperor, but they themselves were allowed to determine the faith of their subjects. Although approximately 80% of all areas was Protestant, Catholics could later recover a significant part in the "counter reformation".

The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) :

The religious and political divisions led to the formation of covenants, such as the Protestant Union (1608) and the Catholic League (1609). In the subsequent Thirty Years' War tried the Habsburg - Catholic - emperors in vain to restore their power. Large parts of Germany were destroyed in the war, the population was almost halved by war, famine and disease. In the Peace of Westphalia (1648) lost the realm extensive areas of Sweden and France.

Switzerland and the Netherlands became independent states and regional princes obtained now virtually all rights with respect to the emperor. Even closing associated with foreign powers. The emperor was from that moment became little more than ceremonial.

Absolutism :

The many German princes orient themselves in the 17th and 18th centuries in many areas following the example of absolutism in France. The prince was there the "absolute" ruler, "L'état, c'est moi" (the state that I am), said the French King Louis XIV and relied on it, by God ( "von Gottesgnaden") as ruler on earth to be named. The omnipotence of the monarch could it do what he wanted. The state was tightly organized. The organization of state finances and civil service was put in order, a permanent army by increased income (i. P. V. Mercenaries) made possible. The economy was supported ( "mercantilism"), including through the establishment of state-owned enterprises ( "Manufakturen"). Overall, the state was often guided more efficient, but more and more exploited the residents. Many princes made their residence into a center of splendor. It was the era in the art of the Baroque and Rococo. And therein the princes did the French style after. They built ceremonial palaces and let construct large gardens. Also, court poets and musicians were hired. A number of German dynasties managed to increase their power clearly. They were Bavaria, Brandenburg (later Prussia), Saxony and Hanover.

Lighting :

The 18th century was called at that time all the Age of Enlightenment ( "Enlightenment"). The arts and sciences made a big revival through, partly because who could rejoice in the great interest of the rulers. No longer only certain church the vision of the people in their world. No longer certain fear of the afterlife life, now began to discover that many natural phenomena were scientifically explained. It also ensured that they thought they could determine the life largely self, if you like the natural laws but knew. This led to a great confidence and optimism regarding science and the future of humanity.

The optimism of the Enlightenment articulated the philosopher Leibniz with his statement that "we live in the best of all worlds." The philosopher Kant called his work on the "chosen immaturity" to leave behind. By rationalism (thinking) and empiricism (observation), one could identify the reality.

Lighting was also politically its effects. No longer princes and their suppression were perceived as God's will. Many big names come from this time. A random selection: Leibniz, Wolff and Kant (philosophers), Lessing (writer), Bach, Telemann, Haydn (musicians).

The Rise of Prussia :

Especially put under the "Soldier King" Friedrich Wilhelm I. The basis for the power of Prussia. Thus, 72% of state revenue in the army and invested its organization. So much that it later once said: "Prussia has an army that a state after holding." Also, the country's construction and the economy were strongly supported, even before they took craftsmen from abroad, including the Netherlands. The "soldiers first" demanded of himself and his subjects simplicity, piety and a strict sense of duty. With the enthronement of Friedrich der Große (1712-1786) in 1740 changed the relatively peaceful policy of Prussia. In several wars, including the seven-year war (1756-1763) took away the o a.. Silesia ( "Silesia") at the mighty Austria. The victory was finally achieved at the last minute and went with unimaginable loss and pain associated. Friedrich II speaks to many people on the day of the imagination today. He suffered under the strict upbringing of his father and even tried to flee. He enjoyed philosophy and music, while his father wanted him right into a formidable military. Eventually he has to become that when he was seated on the throne. As a "philosopher on the throne" he brooked sometimes decidedly different opinions and was not only against the religion of his subjects tolerant. But when it came to he distinguished himself not another prince of the time and ruled with an iron fist. In the 19th century it was diligently seeking a glorious national past and Friedrich was honored as a national hero. Schoolchildren had to learn the names of the battles and victories of the head. was only after the Second World War to a more sober look at the life and work of Friedrich der Große.

Flourishing of the arts: Klassik :

If the level of art reached a very high level for a certain time, which is called also the "classic period", in German: Klassik.

For German literature was the period of about 1750-1830 absolute heyday. Particularly succeeded the poet Lessing, Goethe, Schiller and Kleist managed to bring the literature to a high level, which would no longer inferior to other European Countries. In just 50 years they had loosely managed to create only French examples and determined its own tradition.

French revolution :

Dismay followed the German princes of the French Revolution (1789) and the revolutionary turmoil then, when literally rolls the head of the nobility, the French king and his wife were beheaded. The noble feudal class society in which the people had surrendered were dismissed at the whim of rulers. Citizens demanded freedom of speech, equality before the law and splitting the power into legislative, executive and controlling power.

An attempt by Prussia and Austria to attack France failed and led to a counter-attack by Napoleon's troops. Napoleon conquered almost the whole of Germany. The German princes had to cede large areas and submit to France.

Following the revolutionary changes in France originated in Germany all kinds of movements that wanted more freedom and national unity.

Many found that Germany finally would also have to form a unit, rather than a collection of mini-states, each of which were not able to perform serious policy. However, the call for more freedom and unity led not to the same revolution as in France. The mainly because Germany - unlike the centralist France - was so fragmented that new ideas were able to spread harder. In addition, Germany was occupied by French troops.

Rhein Bund  :

Germany was drastically reformed under Napoleon: Dioceses state owned went over former free imperial cities (even from medieval imperial period) lost their independence. A number of states were merged in 1806 under the supervision of Napoleon to the so-called Bund Rhein (Rhine-bond). The last German emperor, Franz II. , Explained in 1806 the realm crown down, making the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" now officially ceased to exist.

In the Rhine federation States reforms were introduced: There was a law (Code Napoleon), who introduced the principles of the French Revolution in Germany: everyone irrespective of their origin equal before the law, separation of church and state, separation of judicial and executive power, right of property etc.

Also limited changes were introduced in Prussia: the abolition of serfdom, freedom to establish businesses, self-government of cities. But often it remained at half-hearted changes. Influence and participation remained for most citizens is very limited and only a few southern German princes were willing to work with a constitution. The era of absolutism, in which rulers unlimited power over their subjects did, however, was definitely over.

Liberation Wars (1813-1815)

The armies of Prussia, later England and Austria finally defeated the French troops.

But after his ouster as French Emperor Napoleon in 1814 came back a year later and again attacked. In Belgium, however, a devastating defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, his troops were. Napoleon was put in prison on the island of St. Helena.

The liberation war greatly encouraged the national movement, which wanted to achieve a united Germany.

The German :

The victors from the wars of liberation against Napoleon arrived in 1814 and 1815 meeting in Vienna. During the Congress of Vienna decided the European sovereigns a new classification of the various countries and their borders. The aim was a new European balance of power and prevent revolutions.

The dream of many, that there is finally a free, united Germany would arise, however, remained a dream. In place of the old empire began under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor and his Chancellor Metternich Deutscher Bund. This was a loose alliance of 37 independent German states, all national movements and liberal freedom movements pressed the head; a period of "restoration" began. The press was (still is) censored, controlled universities and banned political movements or limited. It was indeed established a Bundestag in Frankfurt with delegates, but Prussia and Austria were actually together in the service of the German.

The national movement :

Late 18th, early 19th century broke the national consciousness widely through. The ideas of the supporters of national movement sometimes remained vague. Recurring elements are: Germany is seen as a cultural entity, as the common destiny of the German people, and - French example (patriotism), - as a political entity.

Many important people pleaded for national unity, sometimes very fanatical. The writer Ernst Moritz Arndt believed "to be a nation, is the religion of our time." Concurrent with the national movement there were many freedom movements active, fighting o a.. For a fair law and justice, of opinion, association and press freedom.

Industrialization :

Around this time the modernization and industrialization in Germany began to get going. The first railways were built, large factories arose, cities grew rapidly. In 1834 the Deutscher Zollverein ( "tolvereniging") was set so that trade between the German states was mutually simpler. By industrialization emerged a large group of factory workers. Due to the rapid increase in population, there was a surplus of labor, resulting in lower wages and drastically increased poverty. Social services are practically non-existent. In 1844 the weavers in Silesia revolted against their miserable living conditions. The Prussian army revolt harshly hit down.

Revolutionary movements 1830-1848 :

The French July Revolution of 1830 gave the German national movements and freedom movements courage. Several German states had to allow that there was legislation which gave citizens a modest impact. In March 1848 again seized their chance revolutionary movements in France. Also in virtually all German states the rulers had to make concessions to the rebellious citizens. In Berlin, demonstrators took to the barricades on. The Prussian prince Friedrich Wilhelm IV. was forced to express his condolences for the dead revolutionaries. He pledged that Prussia will go on in Germany.

But after the revolt was beaten down he wanted nothing more to know. In other parts of Germany radicals demanded a democratic republic, others handed princes petitions, in which it asked for more influence and national unity.

In 1848, a number of liberal intellectuals attempted to found a single state on democratic basis. In Paul's Church in Frankfurt was the first national parliament, Nationalversammlung meeting. The Liberals were the largest group among the delegates. They sought a constitutional monarchy with limited suffrage. The 586 MPs put o a.. Establish the fundamental rights of citizens. Also on legislation that was done was to build a bridge between the traditions of many small autonomous states and the future (universal suffrage, parliament).

The constitutional status of the national form Germany led to deep divisions. Some wanted a federal state with Austria (the "Großdeutsche Lösung"); others a national state under the leadership of Prussia (the "Small Deutsche Lösung"). But because of the major differences was very difficult to agree.

Eventually they chose the "small Deutsche Lösung" and offered the Parliament to the Prussian king, Friedrich Wilhelm IV. the (inherited) to German imperial crown. The king refused. He did not receive the imperial crown as a result of a revolution.

The parliament, by critics derisively referred to as "Professor parliament" was not supported by those in power in the German states. After a number of popular uprisings were nipped in the bud, they managed precisely, to maintain their power and to make the reforms undone. In 1850, the German was revived. The "revolution" was back to square one.

Bismarck and the unification of Germany :

Prussia developed economically from about 1850 (o a.. By heavy industry and engineering) to the most powerful state on German soil. But the Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck knew the liberal citizens, despite their growing economic power and influence, mainly to keep out game.

In the Prussian parliament, he defied the liberal "Fortschrittspartei" in 1862, when it would take a decision on expenditure on the military. He even ruled without the consent of the state expenditure, he must have according to the constitution of the parliament. The "Fortschrittspartei" did not dare to go beyond throated protests in parliament.

The "fire-eater" Bismarck used his power in Prussia, even within Germany to exert its influence. He also sought a national unity, but "from above", not supported by democratic or liberal unity movements, which would affect the power of the aristocratic landowners.

In the German-Danish war (1864), Austria and Prussia fought even side by side against Denmark. The goal, the annexation of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg to the German, was achieved. But Bismarck was convinced that Austria and Prussia could never stay long meeting in the Deutscher Bund. He therefore sought a Germany under Prussian leadership. After disagreements with Austria on the board of the Danish together conquered territories he found that Austria had to be put on a military confrontation Deutscher Bund. In the Austro-Prussian War (1866), Prussia defeated Austria.

The German Confederation was raised in its place came the Norddeutscher Bund, which included all the states north of the Main river. All this under the leadership of Prussia. Austria now had no more involvement with the developments in Germany. The southern German states moved Bismarck by trade agreements increasingly at the Norddeutsche Bund.

Prussia was now so powerful that France does not want to watch longer. In the Franco-Prussian War (1870/1871) battled the Norddeutscher Bund and formally independent South German states to Prussian side. The Franco-German war was a deliberate confrontation Bismarck, partly intended to drive the now endangered southern German states into the arms of the Norddeutscher Bund, whatever worked. Partly due to the flush of victory of 1870/1871 was not the establishment of a united German empire in the way.

After the French defeat was Bismarck's wish come true. Norddeutscher Bund went into a new empire. The southern states joined with this. It conquered France Alsace-Lorraine was annexed, France had to pay a large amount of reparations.

The empire in Bismarck :

German unity was not the free will of the people about, but from above. It certainly was not the intention that the people should have a greater say and influence.

The right to vote in the parliaments of the various German states themselves had still big differences. In eleven states, there was for instance a class vote, which was tied to income. In some states was still only the nobility of service. Although Germany had become an industrial nation and England began stabbing at the crown, kept power in the hands of the nobility and the officer corps in the army, which consisted for the most part the same nobility.

Within the new empire, that if confederation of four kingdoms, principalities six Duke, five duchies, seven principalities and three free cities existed, Prussia was the dominant factor. The legislation was derived from that of the Norddeutscher Bund. The parliament, the Reichstag, was taken to universal and equal suffrage chosen by men over 25 years. The Federal Council consisted of representatives of the principalities. In the Bundesrat Prussia had a veto. Moreover, formed the 17 of the 58 delegates the largest group.

The Reichstag voted on the legislative proposals of the government and on budget, but could not the Chancellor or dismiss the government. The Chancellor was appointed by the emperor and was only answerable to him. The government members were appointed by the chancellor and were not verantwoordiging to parliament but to the Chancellor. The emperor himself was not only head of state also supreme commander of the army. The Federal Council worked on the legislation.

Nineteen 19 years Bismarck ruled as Chancellor. The emperor - which had remained rather King of Prussia - actually gave him a free hand. Bismarck knew that France could not forgive and Germany would continue to hostility against the loss of Alsace-Lorraine. He closed successfully to stabilize the position of the young German empire in Europe and to avoid new conflicts and wars all kinds of peace and nonaggression treaties (eg. With Austria-Hungary (1879) and Russia (1887)).

But have in his domestic policy Bismarck proved a less happy hand. Democratic movements and opposition in the Reichstag he needed anything. Among his most important "Public Enemies", he had the left wing of the liberal bourgeoisie and the organized labor movement. For the real economic and social problems of the rapidly growing industry is Bismarck, Germany had no view as conservative representative of the gentry.

After attacks on the emperor he forced through the "Sozialistengesetz" (the anti-socialist) emerging Social Democrats from 1878 twelve years to an almost underground existence. Yet their number of delegates grew strongly in the elections. Nor does he succeeded in the labor movement to take the wind out of the sails by social legislation, such as health insurance, accident insurance, old-age and disability insurance etc. The German workers loved it the most modern social legislation in Europe, but chose from election to election more on the social-democratic SPD.

Furthermore, Bismarck feared for Catholicism, which to wake. led "Kulturkampf". Catholics were in his eyes - unlike the Protestant Prussia - after "slave of Rome" and therefore unreliable in his eyes countrymen.