The History of Germany

THE HISTORY OF GERMANY

The Teutons: 

A little known area was populated by Germanic tribes. These hunters, farmers and warriors managed to stop the Romans in their advance, defeat a large Roman army during the battle in the Teutoburg Forest (.. 9 AD). They were also led by Arminius Hermann the Cherusker. The Romans withdrew in time then returned from the area between the rivers Elbe and the Rhine. They thus incidentally still occupy part of Germania. Cities such as for example Cologne (Latin: Colonia) owe their name to the Romans. To counter attacks by Germanic tribes defend the Romans built a border reinforcement. The Roman empire lost in the centuries to power and meaning. During the migrations of the Germanic tribes exchanged their habitats throughout Europe.

Charlemagne and the kingdom of the Frank :

From 400 n. Chr. one tribe got more power: the Franks. The most famous monarch, Charlemagne lived around 800. He was able to spend a large part of Europe under his control: France, Italy and Germany west of the Elbe.

After the death of the son of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious, had his three sons each a part of the empire. That happened in the Treaty of Verdun (843 n. Chr.) Louis the German received the eastern part of the empire, from which would emerge later the German Empire. From the western part would come later France.

In the year 911 the first German king, Kondrad I, chosen by the nobility. It was true that there was indeed elected, but also had to be relatives of the former king. From the 13th century chose the principal vassals, the Electors, the king.

The first kings had to share their power with powerful tribal dukes.

Adjust the royal family of the Ottonians succeeded in somewhat reducing the power of stem dukes. Otto I. conquered large parts of Italy and was crowned by the pope as emperor in 962 in Rome. This coronation has since been more or less an acquired right.

Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (911-1806) :

The empire was originally named "Roman Empire", since the 13th century "Holy Roman Empire" and vanafde 15th century, "Holy Roman Empire of the German nation." The name can be clearly seen that their regarded themselves as successors to the Roman emperors. Only from the 15th century are going to use the word of Germany. The emperors considered themselves often superior to the papacy, which led to major conflicts with the church. For example, over who should appoint new bishops. The emperors had an interest in their property by having chosen bishops governments; who could not wijgeren after all. The powerful competitors of the emperor, the dukes and earls, had thus reviewing. But still managed to reduce the princes to the power of the emperor over again, the empire was fragmented into many small areas. The cities were becoming increasingly important. The power of the emperor but only took off; actually suggested that does not so much more from 1350. From 1254 to 1273, during the "Interregnum" was even disagreement not generally recognized emperor. From about 1400 the empire was almost continuously in the hands of the family of the Habsburgs. They tried by "Hausmachtpolitik" (as much as possible to increase their area), to increase their power and influence.

Reformation :

In 1517 Martin Luther protested against abuses in the church, such as trade with indulgences and the burning of heretics. By payment you could be sent, as it were surrenders. The "drain" it was a proof of this. Luther with his criticism hit the nail on the head. In the troubled period that followed was the exception to a schism in the church (Catholic and Protestant) also to an uprising of rich knights (1522/23) and farmers (the "Bauer Krieg", 1525). The rebellions were nipped in the bud. Regional sovereigns benefited from the Religious Peace of Augsburg (the "Augsburger Religion Frieden", 1555). Not the emperor, but they themselves were allowed to determine the faith of their subjects. Although approximately 80% of all areas was Protestant, Catholics could later recover a significant part in the "counter reformation".

The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) :

The religious and political divisions led to the formation of covenants, such as the Protestant Union (1608) and the Catholic League (1609). In the subsequent Thirty Years' War tried the Habsburg - Catholic - emperors in vain to restore their power. Large parts of Germany were destroyed in the war, the population was almost halved by war, famine and disease. In the Peace of Westphalia (1648) lost the realm extensive areas of Sweden and France.

Switzerland and the Netherlands became independent states and regional princes obtained now virtually all rights with respect to the emperor. Even closing associated with foreign powers. The emperor was from that moment became little more than ceremonial.

Absolutism :

The many German princes orient themselves in the 17th and 18th centuries in many areas following the example of absolutism in France. The prince was there the "absolute" ruler, "L'état, c'est moi" (the state that I am), said the French King Louis XIV and relied on it, by God ( "von Gottesgnaden") as ruler on earth to be named. The omnipotence of the monarch could it do what he wanted. The state was tightly organized. The organization of state finances and civil service was put in order, a permanent army by increased income (i. P. V. Mercenaries) made possible. The economy was supported ( "mercantilism"), including through the establishment of state-owned enterprises ( "Manufakturen"). Overall, the state was often guided more efficient, but more and more exploited the residents. Many princes made their residence into a center of splendor. It was the era in the art of the Baroque and Rococo. And therein the princes did the French style after. They built ceremonial palaces and let construct large gardens. Also, court poets and musicians were hired. A number of German dynasties managed to increase their power clearly. They were Bavaria, Brandenburg (later Prussia), Saxony and Hanover.

Lighting :

The 18th century was called at that time all the Age of Enlightenment ( "Enlightenment"). The arts and sciences made a big revival through, partly because who could rejoice in the great interest of the rulers. No longer only certain church the vision of the people in their world. No longer certain fear of the afterlife life, now began to discover that many natural phenomena were scientifically explained. It also ensured that they thought they could determine the life largely self, if you like the natural laws but knew. This led to a great confidence and optimism regarding science and the future of humanity.

The optimism of the Enlightenment articulated the philosopher Leibniz with his statement that "we live in the best of all worlds." The philosopher Kant called his work on the "chosen immaturity" to leave behind. By rationalism (thinking) and empiricism (observation), one could identify the reality.

Lighting was also politically its effects. No longer princes and their suppression were perceived as God's will. Many big names come from this time. A random selection: Leibniz, Wolff and Kant (philosophers), Lessing (writer), Bach, Telemann, Haydn (musicians).

The Rise of Prussia :

Especially put under the "Soldier King" Friedrich Wilhelm I. The basis for the power of Prussia. Thus, 72% of state revenue in the army and invested its organization. So much that it later once said: "Prussia has an army that a state after holding." Also, the country's construction and the economy were strongly supported, even before they took craftsmen from abroad, including the Netherlands. The "soldiers first" demanded of himself and his subjects simplicity, piety and a strict sense of duty. With the enthronement of Friedrich der Große (1712-1786) in 1740 changed the relatively peaceful policy of Prussia. In several wars, including the seven-year war (1756-1763) took away the o a.. Silesia ( "Silesia") at the mighty Austria. The victory was finally achieved at the last minute and went with unimaginable loss and pain associated. Friedrich II speaks to many people on the day of the imagination today. He suffered under the strict upbringing of his father and even tried to flee. He enjoyed philosophy and music, while his father wanted him right into a formidable military. Eventually he has to become that when he was seated on the throne. As a "philosopher on the throne" he brooked sometimes decidedly different opinions and was not only against the religion of his subjects tolerant. But when it came to he distinguished himself not another prince of the time and ruled with an iron fist. In the 19th century it was diligently seeking a glorious national past and Friedrich was honored as a national hero. Schoolchildren had to learn the names of the battles and victories of the head. was only after the Second World War to a more sober look at the life and work of Friedrich der Große.

Flourishing of the arts: Klassik :

If the level of art reached a very high level for a certain time, which is called also the "classic period", in German: Klassik.

For German literature was the period of about 1750-1830 absolute heyday. Particularly succeeded the poet Lessing, Goethe, Schiller and Kleist managed to bring the literature to a high level, which would no longer inferior to other European Countries. In just 50 years they had loosely managed to create only French examples and determined its own tradition.

French revolution :

Dismay followed the German princes of the French Revolution (1789) and the revolutionary turmoil then, when literally rolls the head of the nobility, the French king and his wife were beheaded. The noble feudal class society in which the people had surrendered were dismissed at the whim of rulers. Citizens demanded freedom of speech, equality before the law and splitting the power into legislative, executive and controlling power.

An attempt by Prussia and Austria to attack France failed and led to a counter-attack by Napoleon's troops. Napoleon conquered almost the whole of Germany. The German princes had to cede large areas and submit to France.

Following the revolutionary changes in France originated in Germany all kinds of movements that wanted more freedom and national unity.

Many found that Germany finally would also have to form a unit, rather than a collection of mini-states, each of which were not able to perform serious policy. However, the call for more freedom and unity led not to the same revolution as in France. The mainly because Germany - unlike the centralist France - was so fragmented that new ideas were able to spread harder. In addition, Germany was occupied by French troops.

Rhein Bund  :

Germany was drastically reformed under Napoleon: Dioceses state owned went over former free imperial cities (even from medieval imperial period) lost their independence. A number of states were merged in 1806 under the supervision of Napoleon to the so-called Bund Rhein (Rhine-bond). The last German emperor, Franz II. , Explained in 1806 the realm crown down, making the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" now officially ceased to exist.

In the Rhine federation States reforms were introduced: There was a law (Code Napoleon), who introduced the principles of the French Revolution in Germany: everyone irrespective of their origin equal before the law, separation of church and state, separation of judicial and executive power, right of property etc.

Also limited changes were introduced in Prussia: the abolition of serfdom, freedom to establish businesses, self-government of cities. But often it remained at half-hearted changes. Influence and participation remained for most citizens is very limited and only a few southern German princes were willing to work with a constitution. The era of absolutism, in which rulers unlimited power over their subjects did, however, was definitely over.

Liberation Wars (1813-1815)

The armies of Prussia, later England and Austria finally defeated the French troops.

But after his ouster as French Emperor Napoleon in 1814 came back a year later and again attacked. In Belgium, however, a devastating defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, his troops were. Napoleon was put in prison on the island of St. Helena.

The liberation war greatly encouraged the national movement, which wanted to achieve a united Germany.

The German :

The victors from the wars of liberation against Napoleon arrived in 1814 and 1815 meeting in Vienna. During the Congress of Vienna decided the European sovereigns a new classification of the various countries and their borders. The aim was a new European balance of power and prevent revolutions.

The dream of many, that there is finally a free, united Germany would arise, however, remained a dream. In place of the old empire began under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor and his Chancellor Metternich Deutscher Bund. This was a loose alliance of 37 independent German states, all national movements and liberal freedom movements pressed the head; a period of "restoration" began. The press was (still is) censored, controlled universities and banned political movements or limited. It was indeed established a Bundestag in Frankfurt with delegates, but Prussia and Austria were actually together in the service of the German.

The national movement :

Late 18th, early 19th century broke the national consciousness widely through. The ideas of the supporters of national movement sometimes remained vague. Recurring elements are: Germany is seen as a cultural entity, as the common destiny of the German people, and - French example (patriotism), - as a political entity.

Many important people pleaded for national unity, sometimes very fanatical. The writer Ernst Moritz Arndt believed "to be a nation, is the religion of our time." Concurrent with the national movement there were many freedom movements active, fighting o a.. For a fair law and justice, of opinion, association and press freedom.

Industrialization :

Around this time the modernization and industrialization in Germany began to get going. The first railways were built, large factories arose, cities grew rapidly. In 1834 the Deutscher Zollverein ( "tolvereniging") was set so that trade between the German states was mutually simpler. By industrialization emerged a large group of factory workers. Due to the rapid increase in population, there was a surplus of labor, resulting in lower wages and drastically increased poverty. Social services are practically non-existent. In 1844 the weavers in Silesia revolted against their miserable living conditions. The Prussian army revolt harshly hit down.

Revolutionary movements 1830-1848 :

The French July Revolution of 1830 gave the German national movements and freedom movements courage. Several German states had to allow that there was legislation which gave citizens a modest impact. In March 1848 again seized their chance revolutionary movements in France. Also in virtually all German states the rulers had to make concessions to the rebellious citizens. In Berlin, demonstrators took to the barricades on. The Prussian prince Friedrich Wilhelm IV. was forced to express his condolences for the dead revolutionaries. He pledged that Prussia will go on in Germany.

But after the revolt was beaten down he wanted nothing more to know. In other parts of Germany radicals demanded a democratic republic, others handed princes petitions, in which it asked for more influence and national unity.

In 1848, a number of liberal intellectuals attempted to found a single state on democratic basis. In Paul's Church in Frankfurt was the first national parliament, Nationalversammlung meeting. The Liberals were the largest group among the delegates. They sought a constitutional monarchy with limited suffrage. The 586 MPs put o a.. Establish the fundamental rights of citizens. Also on legislation that was done was to build a bridge between the traditions of many small autonomous states and the future (universal suffrage, parliament).

The constitutional status of the national form Germany led to deep divisions. Some wanted a federal state with Austria (the "Großdeutsche Lösung"); others a national state under the leadership of Prussia (the "Small Deutsche Lösung"). But because of the major differences was very difficult to agree.

Eventually they chose the "small Deutsche Lösung" and offered the Parliament to the Prussian king, Friedrich Wilhelm IV. the (inherited) to German imperial crown. The king refused. He did not receive the imperial crown as a result of a revolution.

The parliament, by critics derisively referred to as "Professor parliament" was not supported by those in power in the German states. After a number of popular uprisings were nipped in the bud, they managed precisely, to maintain their power and to make the reforms undone. In 1850, the German was revived. The "revolution" was back to square one.

Bismarck and the unification of Germany :

Prussia developed economically from about 1850 (o a.. By heavy industry and engineering) to the most powerful state on German soil. But the Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck knew the liberal citizens, despite their growing economic power and influence, mainly to keep out game.

In the Prussian parliament, he defied the liberal "Fortschrittspartei" in 1862, when it would take a decision on expenditure on the military. He even ruled without the consent of the state expenditure, he must have according to the constitution of the parliament. The "Fortschrittspartei" did not dare to go beyond throated protests in parliament.

The "fire-eater" Bismarck used his power in Prussia, even within Germany to exert its influence. He also sought a national unity, but "from above", not supported by democratic or liberal unity movements, which would affect the power of the aristocratic landowners.

In the German-Danish war (1864), Austria and Prussia fought even side by side against Denmark. The goal, the annexation of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg to the German, was achieved. But Bismarck was convinced that Austria and Prussia could never stay long meeting in the Deutscher Bund. He therefore sought a Germany under Prussian leadership. After disagreements with Austria on the board of the Danish together conquered territories he found that Austria had to be put on a military confrontation Deutscher Bund. In the Austro-Prussian War (1866), Prussia defeated Austria.

The German Confederation was raised in its place came the Norddeutscher Bund, which included all the states north of the Main river. All this under the leadership of Prussia. Austria now had no more involvement with the developments in Germany. The southern German states moved Bismarck by trade agreements increasingly at the Norddeutsche Bund.

Prussia was now so powerful that France does not want to watch longer. In the Franco-Prussian War (1870/1871) battled the Norddeutscher Bund and formally independent South German states to Prussian side. The Franco-German war was a deliberate confrontation Bismarck, partly intended to drive the now endangered southern German states into the arms of the Norddeutscher Bund, whatever worked. Partly due to the flush of victory of 1870/1871 was not the establishment of a united German empire in the way.

After the French defeat was Bismarck's wish come true. Norddeutscher Bund went into a new empire. The southern states joined with this. It conquered France Alsace-Lorraine was annexed, France had to pay a large amount of reparations.

The empire in Bismarck :

German unity was not the free will of the people about, but from above. It certainly was not the intention that the people should have a greater say and influence.

The right to vote in the parliaments of the various German states themselves had still big differences. In eleven states, there was for instance a class vote, which was tied to income. In some states was still only the nobility of service. Although Germany had become an industrial nation and England began stabbing at the crown, kept power in the hands of the nobility and the officer corps in the army, which consisted for the most part the same nobility.

Within the new empire, that if confederation of four kingdoms, principalities six Duke, five duchies, seven principalities and three free cities existed, Prussia was the dominant factor. The legislation was derived from that of the Norddeutscher Bund. The parliament, the Reichstag, was taken to universal and equal suffrage chosen by men over 25 years. The Federal Council consisted of representatives of the principalities. In the Bundesrat Prussia had a veto. Moreover, formed the 17 of the 58 delegates the largest group.

The Reichstag voted on the legislative proposals of the government and on budget, but could not the Chancellor or dismiss the government. The Chancellor was appointed by the emperor and was only answerable to him. The government members were appointed by the chancellor and were not verantwoordiging to parliament but to the Chancellor. The emperor himself was not only head of state also supreme commander of the army. The Federal Council worked on the legislation.

Nineteen 19 years Bismarck ruled as Chancellor. The emperor - which had remained rather King of Prussia - actually gave him a free hand. Bismarck knew that France could not forgive and Germany would continue to hostility against the loss of Alsace-Lorraine. He closed successfully to stabilize the position of the young German empire in Europe and to avoid new conflicts and wars all kinds of peace and nonaggression treaties (eg. With Austria-Hungary (1879) and Russia (1887)).

But have in his domestic policy Bismarck proved a less happy hand. Democratic movements and opposition in the Reichstag he needed anything. Among his most important "Public Enemies", he had the left wing of the liberal bourgeoisie and the organized labor movement. For the real economic and social problems of the rapidly growing industry is Bismarck, Germany had no view as conservative representative of the gentry.

After attacks on the emperor he forced through the "Sozialistengesetz" (the anti-socialist) emerging Social Democrats from 1878 twelve years to an almost underground existence. Yet their number of delegates grew strongly in the elections. Nor does he succeeded in the labor movement to take the wind out of the sails by social legislation, such as health insurance, accident insurance, old-age and disability insurance etc. The German workers loved it the most modern social legislation in Europe, but chose from election to election more on the social-democratic SPD.

Furthermore, Bismarck feared for Catholicism, which to wake. led "Kulturkampf". Catholics were in his eyes - unlike the Protestant Prussia - after "slave of Rome" and therefore unreliable in his eyes countrymen.